清华在线同等学力英语短文写作指导

(a) Addition: again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too

(b) Comparison: also, in the same way, likewise, similarly

(c) Concession: granted; naturally, of course

(d) Contrast: although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet

(e) Emphasis: certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

(f) Example or Illustration: after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in short, it is tree, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly

(g) Summary: all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize

(h) Time Sequence: after a while, .afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides, earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now,  presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until,  until now, when

(2)重复关键词和词组可以使句子有节奏感、有感染力等特点，一定会给读者留下很深的印象。例如：

We can fool some of the people all of the time, and all of the people some of the time, but we cannot fool all of the people all of the time.

…a government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth.

(3)代词的使用可以避免不必要的重复，但是要注意指代明确。如This is true

because…这句话用在文章开头显然不合适。This指代什么，一定要明确才行。如果担心在文中表述不清楚的话，干脆写成They say that…则更好。

(4)并列结构同样可以给文章强烈的乐感和节奏感。请看下段：

The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead  people’s bodies by making mummies of them. Mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. The skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features of the mummies were evident. It is possible to diagnose the disease they suffered in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies. The process was remarkably effective. Sometimes apparent were the fatal afflictions of the dead people: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head, and polio killed a child king. Mummification consisted of removing the internal organs, applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages.

尽管这个段落不是非常完美，但是从主题句到结尾句，整段还是很统一的，不显得零散。不过由于缺少结构上的衔接还是不够连贯。再看修改后的段落并注意和衔接手法：

The ancient Egyptians were masters of preserving dead people’s bodies by making mummies of them.  In short, mummification consisted of removing the internal organs; applying natural preservatives inside and out, and then wrapping the body in layers of bandages. And the process was remarkably effective. Indeed, mummies several thousand years old have been discovered nearly intact. Their skin, hair, teeth, fingernails and toenails, and facial features are still evident. Their diseases in life, such as smallpox, arthritis, and nutritional deficiencies, are still diagnosable. Even their fatal afflictions are still apparent: a middle-aged king died from a blow on the head; a child king died from polio.

可见，句子之间的过渡，使用过渡词是最主要的手段。在汉语写作中，人们讲究文章的起、承、转、合，实际上都是靠过渡性衔接手段来实现的。下面就从这个角度对以上列举的过渡词汇进行分类总结。

(1)“启”：用于引导主题句，或用于主题句的后面，引导第一个发展句。如first (firstly), at first, first of all, in the beginning, in the first place, at present, to begin with, currently, to start with, lately, for one thing, now, recently, on the one hand, in general, generally speaking, at present, in recent years, comparatively (speaking), nowadays, in general, in a sense, in a way, in my opinion, obviously, undoubtedly 等;

(2) “承”：用于承接主题句或前一个发展句。如second ( secondly ), third (thirdly), also/too, besides, in addition, furthermore, moreover, what is more, for another, for example, for instance, as an example, as another example, namely, then, in other words, in particular, in the same way, after that, afterwards, after a few. days, after a while, from now on, later, just as, similarly, meanwhile, at the same time, by this time, soon, consequently, of course, for this purpose, equally important, what is more, what is worse, certainly, surely, obviously, especially, in particular, indeed, still, in fact, in plain terms, in practice, for the most part, no doubt 等;

(3)“转”：用来表示不同或相反的情况。如 after all, but, yet, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, conversely, though, although, despite, in spite of, on the contrary, in contrast,  unlike, whereas,  on the other hand,  all the same, unfortunately, still, in fact, as a matter of fact, in any case, at any rate, otherwise, or else, instead 等;

(4)“合”：用于总结段落中上文的内容，引导一个发展句或结论句，也可以用于文章的最后一段。如finally，hence，in brief，in conclusion，in short，in summary, therefore, thus, to sum up, to conclude, to summarize, briefly, above all, as a consequence，as a result，for this reason, as has．been noted，as I have said，at last，at length，by and large，consequently，eventually，accordingly，so，after all，in general，in a word，on the whole等。

四、段落扩展方法

段落的扩展，必须围绕主题句的中心思想来阐明某一方面。段落扩展的方法很多，比较常用的有列举法、举例法、描写与叙述法、因果法、比较和对比法、归类法和定义法等。

(1)列举法。列举法是一种最为常见的段落扩展方法。写出主题句后，需要列举一系列论据对主题句内容进行陈述和解释。列举的顺序可以按照各点内容的相对重要性，时间的先后或地理位置的远近等关系来进行。例如：

列举常用的表达词汇手段有：first，second，in the first of place，first of all，to begin with，in the second place，next，also，besides，furthermore，moreover，in addition，what is more，beyond that，for one thing，for another，finally等。

(2)举例法。为了阐明或支持一个观点，采用例子帮助说明，是一个常用而且有力的手段。在采用举例法发展段落时，作者往往在主题句中开门见山地摆出自己的观点，然后举出具体的事例来对其进行说明。所举的例子一般可按照时间顺序或重要性等来进行安排。关键在于各个实例都要与主题密切相关，具有典型性和说服力，或者能够不断地深入说明，或反映主题各个侧面。

举例法常用的表达词汇手段有：for example，for instance，as an example，as a case in point，as an illustration，such as，namely，that is，like，say等。

(3)描写与叙述法。在扩展段落过程中，还可以用描述与叙述的方法。描述和叙述一般按照时间和空间的次序，而这种次序关系在很大程度上体现在它们所特有的过渡连接词上。通过过渡连接词，能够清楚而连贯地描述物体的概况或叙述事件的整个发展过程。

(4)因果法。在人类的思维活动中，人们常常会根据事物的原因推断其结果，或者根据某一结果分析其原因。写作中的因果法正是这种思维方式在写作过程中的具体体现。所谓因果法，就是通过分析事物发生的原因，自然地说明由此而产生的各种结果，或者通过分析某一结果，推断导致这一结果的原因。

段落写作手法总结

(1)时间顺序：时间顺序协作手法可以用在叙述、过程描述、举例与解释、因果关系分析等类型的写作中。In the last century；in the following three years；in the days to come等都是很常见的表达法。

(2)空间顺序：on the right；in the middle；a little further on；to the south of; a few feet behind；directly on the bridge of his nose and a centimeter above his gaping，hairy nostrils；turning left on the pathway等都是很常见的表达法。

(3)递进顺序：一般采用数字并编号。First；second；next；last；more importantly；best of all；still worse；a more effective approach；even more expensive；even more painful than passing a kidney stone；the least wasteful；occasionally；frequently；regularly等都是很常见的表达法。

(4)主题顺序：给写作的段落加上信息结构标记，能够使信息结构明确，读起来顺畅。主题顺序也是诸多写作形式经常采用的。常见表达法包括Among the three elements，the first is…；Another key part l have to discuss is…；A third common principle of doing this kind of work is…；Before l end my discussion，I have to add still another  point，which may not seem relevant，but actually very important…等等。

五、从段落到短文

从段落到短文是写作的必然。考生要把短文写作方法、技巧和要领综合体现，在写作的全过程之中。最重要的是审题、构思、成文和检查修改四个步骤。

1．审题

审题就是对题目进行分析，明确写作的范围和要求，以确定写作的文体和文章的主题思想。审题不仅指审阅作文的题目，还包括试题中给出的段首句、提纲、图表等各项内容，一项也不应忽略。

在以往类似的大型考试中，不少考生在审题这一关上出了问题。审题出错，就好比一出门就拿错了公文包或走错了方向。这样写出的文章与题目要求肯定不符，造成“南辕北辙”是必然结果，势必影响写作成绩。例如一次考试中短文写作试题明确要求You should quote as few figures as possible，可是不少考生根本就没有注意，仍然在写作中照抄和罗列了大量的数字，违反了题目要求。而相反，写得好的考生很少引用数字，既说明了图表所反映的情况，又符合题目要求。

由于审题不认真，几乎每次考试都有低水平的考生将试题中给出的英文抄错。例如What I Can Do to Improve My Reading Skills和What Would Happen if There Were no，Electricity等这样的题目，只是个名词短语，要求考生接着写到底能做什么，到底会发生什么情况等。从功能上讲，是隐含的问句，需要用整篇文章来回答问题。另外，稍加注意就会发现第二个作文题目用的是虚拟语气。如果错用陈述语气来写这种假设的情况下会发生什么，尽管不能算错(因为现实生活中的确有经常断电无法正常生活的事例)，但还是与题目要求有很大出入。即使写得再好，也不能算是好作文。

要提高这方面的能力，考生可以参考报纸和杂志上的连环画和漫画。

在短文写作中，不同的作文题目可能需要采用不同的文体，而同一个作文题目也可能适用不同的文体。有的题目既可以写成记叙文也可以写成描写文，所以应对作文题目进行具体的分析，应在充分理解题意的基础上确定适宜的文体。

像My Earliest Memories of a School，The Most Memorable Days in My Life，The First Snowfall of the Year，An Outing to the Fragrance Hill等这类题目往往写记叙文或描写文均可；像How to Look up a Dictionary，How to Set up an Account，Five Steps of Academic Writing这类题目往往要求写说明文。绝大多数考试题目要求考生发表看法和评论、提出措施和建议等，这类题目都要求写议论文。

议论文(Argumentative)用于摆事实、讲道理、发议论，阐明作者的观点和主张。

议论文和说明文的不同之处在于：说明文只是客观地解释事物、观念、方法、原则等，使读者能够理解，而议论文却企图影响读者的思想和行动，说服读者接受作者

的观点。

2． 构思与计划短文结构

构思是一个极其重要的写作步骤。文章写得好坏在很大程度上取决于构思的优劣。计划短文结构是关键。考研写作题目要求的基本文体是以议论文为主，不论题目有什么变化，短文的基本结构还是相同的。

恰如在写句子的阶段要注意关键词，在写段落阶段要注意主题句一样，在短文阶段要注意的是写好主题段。每个段落都由“主题句——发展句——结束(结论)句”构成，同样每篇文章也基本上由“主题(引言)段——发展(正文)段——结束(结论)段”构成。

第一段通常要求列举事实、说明现状，或者从正面论述一个问题；第二段为正文，通常要求对事实和现状进行分析，说明原因，或者从反面论述一个问题；第三段为结论段，通常要求写出个人的看法、结论，或者解决问题的办法、措施。

了解文章的总体框架和基本写作内容，就可以对写作考试有个宏观的把握，大体上做到写前心中有数。当然这三段式框架并不是绝对的，应灵活机动地运用其有效的部分。一般情况下短文通常要写成三段，但有时根据题意可能需要写成两段或四段。一个段落的展开可以采用扩张的写法，也可以采用先扩张而后收拢的写法。倘若采用扩张法，则不需要写出归纳段落中心思想的结论段。总之，短文的段落安排，展开段落的方法，发展句的层次和句数，结论段的长短等，均应视试题的具体要求而定。

整篇结构示意图：

The Topic Paragraph

Followed by

Development Paragraph(s)

(expansion／explanation／comment／illustration)

Followed by